The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST-GCR-98-756, Gaithersburg, MD, Donegan H (2008) Decision Analysis. There are a total of 17 fire effects listed in NFPA (2014) that serve as the base list of observations for fire investigators (Table1). Many of the firefighting factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. The proposed definition for fire patterns is. Identifying processes of using fire patterns in determining an area of origin. 2006; Hopkins et al. gtuSLH{2lF>u;yQ2J)@p"cZLL#u9z}.AnwFA?kRr}8F&tr d{Dy{{ \|u)(pV
W Fire investigators are instructed to visually and measurably identify these areas and lines of demarcation. The study concluded that 73.8% without measurable data and 77.7% with measurable data accurately determined the area of origin. Cue 5-lines of demarcation are angled emanating from the fuel item. Hughes Associates, Maryland (USA), Bieber P (2014) Anatomy of Wrongful Arson Conviction: Sentinel Event Analysis in Fire Investigations. If the burning fuel package was located at or very near the vertical witness surface, then the expected fire pattern is shaped as a V, evidenced by its angulated lines of demarcation. location and elevation). Department of Justice, USA, Milke J, Hill S (1997) Full-scale room fire experiments conducted at the University of Maryland. This was the first time that investigators were encouraged to assign some reliability to their origin conclusion, however, the authors failed to provide guidelines on how specifically to arrive at the initial origin hypothesis. Exposure of materials to the byproducts of combustion can also lead to damage that may be useful to the investigator. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Monograph 179, Gaithersburg, MD, Posey E, Posey J (1983) Using Calcination of Gypsum Wallboard to Reveal Burn Patterns. Finally, the study was conducted with a variety of digital cameras and they found that the optical properties were not dependent on the camera used. Therefore, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed. Some of these indicators used were alligatoring, crazing of glass, depth of char, lines of demarcation, sagged furniture springs and spalled concrete. Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. Chapter 4 fire patterns. However, no procedural details were provided on how to implement the analysis. 2003). Scene photograph of suspected ignitable liquid pour (Wood et al. Fire investigation (origin and cause determination) is an integral part of the total fire safety model, including fire prevention and protection for a community. The characteristics of damage that have been reported in the literature to assist investigators in determining the cause of the fire pattern will be evaluated here. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for ULG fire patterns. Shanley et al. Noticeable patterns created by the fire as it burns. The fuel-controlled conditions had consistently higher probabilities in positively identifying each cue as compared to ventilation-controlled conditions. aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons). They also discussed that locations and conditions of ventilation openings as functioning in two different capacities, where the fire could pass to the next roomor it may be a source of incoming air to feed the fire (Straeter and Crawford 1955). These eight tests were allowed to continue until just before flashover conditions were attained (Hoffmann et al. location and elevation). 2014). More recent research has identified heat flux values between 25 and 50kW/m2 reported at 1m away from more modern fuel packages, including king size mattresses, upholstered chairs and sleeper sofas (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009). 2008; Mann and Putaansuu 2009). 2009-DN-BX-K232. These patterns are often witnessed on vertical surfaces of content items and wall linings. 2014). Journal of Testing and Evaluation 40. doi:10.1520/JTE104261, Madrzykowski D, Kerber S (2009) Fire Fighting Tactics under Wind Driven Conditions: Laboratory Experiments. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for PG fire patterns. These photographs and annotations are provided to illustrate the burn pattern indicated. In 1985, Cooke and Ide put forward a process termed radius of error (Cooke and Ide 1985). This warning was strengthened over the years to say irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings should not be identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation of the shape alone (NFPA 2001). 2004). Other areas of science regularly deal with inverse problems typically through extensive mathematical study. This method was used to identify each fire pattern within the compartment, ascribe a direction or intensity to that damage and assign a directional arrow on a diagram to reflect this damage, however, no specific procedural details were provided on how to implement this analysis or how to interpret direction (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). 2009; Gorbett 2010; Gorbett et al. The failure in knowledge transfer is most likely because experienced investigators, particularly those who obtained their basic training before 1992, were trained with misinformation and misconceptions (Lentini 2012). (2013) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. The statistics can be found in the Excel Spreadsheet associated with this review paper. (1997)) reported that suppression-generated patterns, those caused by water spray from a fire department hose line, were easily identifiable in their test series. However, some data exists that indicates if a compartment fire does not transition to a fully involved state, then the floor patterns may persist (Putorti 2001; Mealy et al. Their method encouraged investigators to use fire patterns to arrive at an origin, but upon arriving at their hypothetical area(s) of origin required the investigator to provide some measure of accuracy in the form of a radius of error. Google Scholar, Rethoret H (1945) Fire Investigations. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. The cumulative heat exposure should be considered the leading factor in the creation of damage. Quintiere and McCaffrey (1980) showed that near-opening mixing associated with the cold, incoming air flow entraining the hot gas is an issue that would be a potential cause for near-to or adjacent damage occurring on surfaces next to ventilation openings. Varying degree of fire damage to gypsum wallboard-visible damage results, Varying degree of fire damage to gypsum wallboard-contour plot of the depth of calcination results of Fig. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson (Boudreau et al. 2003). However, others argued that many variables such as the type of wood, variations in burning within the compartment, firefighting operations and orientation of the wood influenced the rate of charring and suggested that investigators only use the locations of greater depths as relative longer exposures to heating that should not necessarily be tied to a duration of burning (Kirk 1969; DeHaan 1983; Ettling, 1990). Test. As such, material properties were already discussed in the degree of fire damage assessment and will not be duplicated here. Resistance in the tool system is minimized through the use of UHMW-PE TIVAR plastic on all sliding surfaces, eliminating metal on metal contact. The second way to retrace the path of the fire towards the origin was by the use of the effects produced, which they broke down into evaluating six parts including (a) char, (b) remains and debris, (c) room temperatures, (d) sequence of shorted electric circuits, (e) sequence of sprinkler eruptions, (f) interiors of partitions and (g) adjoining properties. Grant No. In fuel-controlled conditions, cues 24 were positively identified in 92% of the studies (23/25), cues 1 and 5 were positively identified in 88% of the studies (22/25), cue 6 was positively identified in 84% of the studies (21/25), and cue 7 was identified in only 68% of the studies (17/25). Both of these misconceptions have fallen into disrepute and are no longer prevalent within the current profession (Bieber 2014). Wall condition on the four sides of a room may differ and thus indicate where most heat was applied (Straeter and Crawford 1955). 2013). An upholstered sofa and upholstered chair were located in adjacent corners across the room from each other with a coffee table in between. The characteristics associated with the geometric shapes were in some cases linked to the speed of the fire, such as the angle of the V could be interpreted as the fire being fast or slow. Fire Technology 49:395409, Saito K (1993) Study of Fire Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall. As the temperatures are higher in the room of origin it is expected that an upper layer will be affecting those surfaces higher in elevation. V-patterns, spalling, distorted bulbs, depth of. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), Ngu C (2004) Calcination of Gypsum Plasterboard under Fire Exposure. Pearson/Brady, New Jersey (USA), Delichatsios M (1984) Flame Heights of Turbulent Wall Fire with Significant Flame Radiation. In 2003, ten full-scale test burns were performed in a ISO 9705 room 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a primary focus on examining television sets and electronic appliances exposed to a full-scale room fire (Hoffmann et al. Additional researchers and texts disavowed the use of this visible observation and its connection to the speed of fire (Cooke and Ide 1985; Ettling 1990; NFPA 1992). Kirk continues the discussion by cautioning the investigator that this pattern will be altered by the presence of obstructions, or of readily burned fuel in localized areas, and he warns that a very common complication arises when areas of excellent ventilation are present where intense burns will be noted in such areas that may well distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). There was no significant damage identified around the window ventilation, as the researchers discussed that this vent served primarily as an outflow for the heated gases, while the doorway served as the inflow due to the location of the neutral plane. California Privacy Statement, The combustion of a fuel through diffusion flames is inherently oxygen limited by the diffusion reaction and the availability of only 21% of oxygen in air in well-ventilated fires. 1 and 2). The literature identified that investigators use the damage in two different ways. Glossary Tag: WFISC PMS412 The present paper establishes a review of the work done over the past 80years, which addresses the current situation of the profession in light of this recommendation by the National Academy of Sciences. Fire patterns identified on the floor have been a common theme within fire investigation as being a possible indicator that flammable or combustible liquids were used within the fire (Smith 1983; Beyler 2009). Next, the ability to identify clusters of damage was evaluated. Average velocities of natural ventilation flows through windows have been recorded between 0.5 and 1.0m/s (1.14.4 mph) depending on the sill height and elevation of the opening within the wall (Kerber 2010; Kerber and Walton 2005; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). The tests were able to burn in the full-room involvement state for 7, 140 and 111s respectively. (2013) developed a constant force depth of calcination tool to eliminate inconsistencies in depth of calcination measurements to provide a more practical application of the tool based on the Ngu (2004) and Mealy (2013) studies. The LEAA report, after listing the indicators, identified that these indicators have received little or no scientific testing and that there appears to be no published material in the scientific literature to substantiate their validity (Boudreau et al. Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, New York, NY, pp 129139, Taroni F, Bozza S, Aitken C (2005) Decision analysis in forensic science. Cue 3-elevation of the line of demarcation is consistent with the height of the fuel item. However, most inverse problems are approached by first establishing direct solutions for well-posed problems. The next identified process was promulgated by John Kennedy in 1962 and was termed the Pointer or Arrow Theory (Kennedy 1959). Mass loss of the furniture items was measured at the end of each test and was showed to relate well to the area of origin. A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. One common type of fire pattern is plume-generated patterns, the lines that come from the three-dimensional shape of the fire plume being cut by an interweaving two-dimensional surface, such as a ceiling or wall. Drysdale (2011) indicates that the average compartment temperatures are highest near the cross over between fuel-controlled and ventilation-controlled. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2002) Recommendations of the Research Advisory Council on Post-fire Analysis A White Paper. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Claflin P (2014) Effects of Multiple Ventilation Openings on a Post-Flashover Compartment Fire. Fire occurs due to the exothermic reaction of combustion (burning), producing heat and light. As shown in the literature search, no system exists and therefore this assumption is unwarranted by previous researchers (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013; Gorbett et al. (1997)) described the phenomenon that ventilation to the room was able to change the truncated cone shape expected from the flame and fire plume by leaning or pushing of one side of the pattern away from the source of ventilation (Shanley et al. Several correlations have been developed to assist in determining the minimum HRR necessary for flashover to occur, conditioned on the total surface area of the compartment (AT) and the ventilation factor \( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \) (McCaffrey and Quintiere (1977); Babrauskas 1980; McCaffrey et al. Carman attributed the failure to the lack of understanding by the investigation profession of the differences between pre- and post-flashover fire behavior and resulting damage. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference, Fire and Materials 2003. 6, 4th edn. Use of damage in fire investigation: a review of fire patterns analysis, research and future direction. Gottuks (1992) results were gases from the layer burning and escaping, while Wieczorek et al. Mann and Putaansuu (2010) exposed samples of gypsum wallboard to three levels of heat flux for three different durations and noted visible changes, as well as depth of calcination changes with a variety of probing instruments. Heat and flame vector analysis was used as a process within these studies to document the direction of fire travel, location and magnitude of fire patterns, as well as a process of confirming the area of origin. In the United Kingdom the use of fire patterns can be found within the literature, though, they tended to discuss these as directional signposts where the heat flow will cause asymmetric effects within the building (Cooke and Ide 1985). Forensic science is defined as the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system, including both criminal and civil actions (Houck and Siegel 2006). There are four logical components to the literature review presented: The first part of the review describes the work completed for establishing a degree of fire damage assessment for commonly encountered materials in structure fires. A survey was conducted by the National Center for Forensic Sciences (NCFS) in 2000 where 422 fire investigators revealed that only 33% held a college degree, of which only 10% were related to science or engineering (Minnich 2000). However, the visible and measurable observations used in identifying the varying degree of charring have had many misconceptions. Developing a process for the objective identification of areas requiring further attention during fire investigation that is universally accepted by the community is recommended to increase the reliability and accuracy of fire origin determinations. Several researchers have identified significant changes in damage around drywall seams (Claflin 2014; Gorbett et al. Riahi (2012) studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall. The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. Muscular strength develops and recedes over time because of necessity; one example of this is a baby learning to walk. Building Research Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith (1984) Analysis of Char Patterns Known as Alligatoring. Such patterns can provide clues as to the origin, cause or propagation path of the fire. Therefore, the walls, ceiling and floor surfaces are now receiving an elevated heat flux, in addition to the already burning fuel receiving greater feedback, increasing its own HRR and other fuels becoming involved. The first reference that fire investigators were able to use depth of calcination for origin determination can be found in 1955, where the authors of this text relate depth of char methods to that which can also be done to spoiled plaster (drywall) or concrete may indicate the point of origin by a similar means of determining greatest damage (Straeter and Crawford 1955). This test was conducted as part of a conference where the participants of the conference were to evaluate the fire scenes for origin. variables: the material itself, the RHR, fire suppression activities, temperature of the heat source, ventilation, and the length of time of exposure. The most emphasis was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, Quincy, MA, Lattimer B, Sorathia H (2003) Thermal characteristics of fires in a noncombustible corner. Kennedy incorrectly makes the assumption that in fires involving buildings or other structures where wooden joists or studding are exposed and burning, the application of the fire will usually be constant (Kennedy 1959). There has been extensive work done in the area of flashover for traditional residential-sized compartments with a single opening. 1977). One aspect of looking at radiant heat flux is to determine if the secondary object has been raised to a critical temperature or is receiving a critical heat flux where ignition of that object is possible. These results were found to be statistically significant using a chi square distribution yielding a p-value of 0.006. This should and generally is, close to the low point of the burn (Kirk 1969). Equally important is to determine whether the radiant heat transfer is sufficient to cause damage to nearby contents or wall surfaces. Six studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions (Shanley et al. Items were scorched at distances greater than 0.191.2m depending on the material and heat source. The Carman study did not provide the demographics of the attendees, nor did it provide any statistical rigor. The term related also is included to permit the linkage of the lines of demarcation with progressively increasing or decreasing degrees of damage, such as flow of a hot gas into/out of a compartment. Ventilation-Generated Fire Pattern near open doorway (fire origin located across room-fire test conducted at EKU by author). As heat transfer is first and foremost dependent on a temperature difference, greater temperature differences will result in greater heat flux. Flashcards. The participants were provided a diagram of the room and photographs of the contents, walls and ceiling. Kirk was the next to put forward a general process on how to identify the area of origin based on damage. An optical measurement method was developed to arrive at optical properties of smoke deposited out of a smoke layer onto glass filters. Furthermore, this process has not been widely tested for reliability or validity. Chapter 3, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Since the beginning of organized fire investigation in the late 1940s, fire investigators have relied on fire patterns as their basis for determining the fire origin (Rethoret 1945). J of Forensic Sci. The investigator has always been tasked to evaluate damage from lesser to greater with minimal advice related to any meaning that exists for the lack of damage or the lesser damaged areas (Rethoret 1945). The study divided the use of fire patterns into fire effects and fire dynamics attributes and called for some form of weighting of fire dynamics attributes in the overall decision process. Test. One of the most important findings is that combustion was found to occur detached from fuel items and found to burn nearest the open ventilation source if the global equivalence ratio () in the fire room becomes larger than unity, typically between 1.2 and 1.6 depending on temperature (Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007). He evaluated gasoline and kerosene. A thermocouple tree was located at the area of origin. Currently, no systematic method exists for fire investigators to identify a fire pattern. The amount of soot deposited is dependent greatly on the thermophoretic forces and by soot losses throughout the building (Riahi and Beyler 2011; Riahi 2012; Riahi et al. Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. The constant force is applied to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs. Test 1 had the window and door open for the entire duration of the fire, test 2 had the window hinged closed until flashover and then the window was left opened for the duration of post-flashover and test 3 had no window. For example, an investigator would assign a number 5 char level to a piece of wood that had the number of cracks occurring up to 2 per centimeter with widths approximately the thickness of a five-cent piece (Keith and Smith 1984). It is important for reliability and validity that the industry develop processes to assist investigators to objectively identify fire patterns. Plume-generated fire patterns are commonly associated with a greater magnitude of damage (NFPA 2014). Assessing the historical and current semantics of the fire investigation literature, the use of fire patterns to determine an area of origin, for purposes of the current paper, can be grouped into four areas of literature that need to be reviewed, including: Assessing the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents (i.e. Later in a fires development, an upper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces. U-shaped development, also known as U-shaped learning, is the typical pattern by which select physical, artistic, and cognitive skills are developed. Illustrations from this first discussion are still found today in the current edition of NFPA 921 showing a cross-section of a floor with greater beveling or loss of mass indicating direction (NFPA 2014). Twelve thermocouples were mounted in a grid array above the fuel item to capture temperatures for the duration of the tests. As the smoke exits the opening, it expands in volume and rises. Some experimental work has been conducted in this area as well as predictive calculations (Jahn et al. 2013). 2008). J Forensic Sci 50(4):894905, Taroni F, Aitken C, Garbolino P, Biedermann A (2006) Bayesian Networks and Probabilistic inference in Forensic Science (Statistics in Practice). Cue 4-width of base of damage is approximately the width of the fuel item and not greater than two times the width of the fuel item. Another problem is that the shapes discussed are assuming an idealized fire plume that is shaped as a cone, which is a gross oversimplification. First, during fuel-controlled conditions ventilation has been shown to cause the fire plume to lean away from the source of ventilation due to momentum flows from the inflow, thus influencing the truncated cone shape (Shanley et al. The authors stated that fire leaves its fingerprints and that each finger of flame leaves its effects and the study of these effects will help you pick the spot where it burned first (Straeter and Crawford 1955). Plenary Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. 2008). When the gases rise and expand, they begin interacting with the lining surfaces and contents in the flow of the fluid. In the early stages of a fire and through fuel-controlled conditions, the production of the incomplete combustion byproducts (HCN, CO, UHCs) is typically minor. 13). In this work, the authors outlined a system that described char as being on a range from Number 0 Char up to Number 10 Char, with number 10 char as representing the greatest level of damage. The measuring pin is constructed of a 2mm cobalt drill bit. Fire Technology 17(2):98119, McGraw R, Mowrer F (1999) Flammability of Painted Gypsum Wallboard Subjected to Fire Heat Fluxes. As these problems began to be studied, approaches were developed to help individuals and organizations identify the components of a good decision, how to structure the decision problem and how to treat the associated uncertainty (Clemen and Reilly 2001; Donegan 2008; Kahneman and Tversky 1974; Kleindorfer et al. 1997). Fire Safety Journal 40:528554, Barnott A, Hardman R, Hoff N (2013) An Improved Method for Measuring Depth of Calcination in Fire Investigations. If the temperatures are high enough to cause such damage, then it is likely that a plume caused the effect. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Tinsley A (2013) Fire patterns with low heat release rate initial fuels. Wood has been and remains a common material used for construction of structures and contents. Consequently, the forensic scientist must interpret and present the significance of the evidence to the court of law (Taroni et al. Fire tests in a scaled compartment using a propane sand-burner were designed to rapidly progress through flashover with a short period of full room involvement. hVn1ylTQ]BRBJ
deR,B}VgHS(6-gl eU48+8 NFPA 921 (2014) discusses that plume-generated patterns typically have characteristics associated with geometric shapes. The most important finding from these tests is that the interpretation of all fire effects provides substantial evidence for the investigator to identify the correct area of origin (Gorbett et al. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). The inverted cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson with the visible appearance of char being one of the predominant misconceptions (Boudreau et al. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Hoffmann J, Hoffman D, Kroll E, Kroll M (2003) Full Scale Tests of Television Sets and Electronic Appliances. (2004) had flames resulting from a lack of mixing within the compartment, which has also been identified in compartments with combustible linings (Drysdale 2011). He reports a 5.7% success rate of determining the correct quadrant where the fire was started. For example, if an investigator observed charred wood with large, rolling blisters giving it the appearance of alligator skin, then the fire investigator was to interpret this as a rapid fire which was often used then used in concluding that the fire was incendiary in nature. Fire research station, Fire Research Note No. 98 0 obj
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